List of English words from indigenous languages of the Americas

This is a list of English language words borrowed from indigenous languages of the Americas, either directly or through intermediate European languages such as Spanish or French. † indicates a link to a definition of the word. It does not cover names of ethnic groups or place names derived from indigenous languages.

Most words of Native American/First Nations language origin are the common names for indigenous flora and fauna, or describe items of Native American or First Nations life and culture. Some few are names applied in honor of Native Americans or First Nations peoples or due to a vague similarity to the original object of the word. For instance, sequoias are named in honor of the Cherokee leader Sequoyah, who lived 2,000 miles east of that tree's range while the kinkajou of South America was given a name from an unrelated North American animal 2,000 miles to the north.

Contents

Words from Algonquian languages

For a list of words relating to with Algonquian language origins, see the Algonquian derivations category of words in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Since Native Americans and First Nations peoples speaking a language of the Algonquian group were generally the first to meet English explorers and settlers along the Eastern Seaboard, many words from these languages made their way into English.

In addition, a great number of place names in North America are Algonquian names, for example: Mississippi (cf. Illinois mihsisiipiiwi and Ojibwe misiziibi, "great river," referring to the Mississippi River)[1][2] and Michigan (cf. Illinois meehcakamiwi, Ojibwe Mishigami, "great sea," referring to Lake Michigan).[2][3] Even Canadian provinces and U.S. states, districts, counties and municipalities bear Algonquian names, such as Québec, Nantucket, Massachusetts, Naugatuck, Connecticut, Wyoming, District of Keewatin, Outagamie County, Wisconsin and Chicago, Illinois, or Algonquian-derived names, such as Algoma.

In addition, a number of Indigenous peoples of the Americas groups are known better by their Algonquian exonyms, rather than by their endonym, such as the Eskimo (see below), Winnebago (perhaps from Potawatomi winpyéko, "(people of the) dirty water"),[4] Sioux (ultimately from Ottawa naadowesiwag),[4] Assiniboine (Ojibwe asiniibwaan, "stone Sioux")[2] and Chipewyan (Cree čīpwayān, "(those who have) pointed skins or hides").[5]

Apishamore †
From a word in an Algonquian language meaning "something to lie down upon"[6] (c.f. Ojibwe apishimon).[2]
Atamasco lily †
Earlier "attamusca", from Powhatan.[7][8]
Babiche †
From Míkmaq ápapíj (from ápapi, "cord, thread", Proto-Algonquian *aʔrapa·pyi, from *aʔrapy-, "net" + *-a·by-, "string".[9]
Caribou †
From Míkmaq qalipu, "snow-shoveler" (from qalipi, "shovel snow", Proto-Algonquian *maka·ripi-).[10]
Chinkapin †
From Powhatan ‹chechinquamins›,[11] reconstituted as */t͡ʃiːht͡ʃiːnkweːmins/, the plural form.[12]
Chipmunk †
Originally "chitmunk," from Odawa jidmoonh[13] /t͡ʃɪtmő/ (c.f. Ojibwe ajidamoo(nh)),[2] "red squirrel".
Cisco †
Originally "siscowet," from Ojibwe language bemidewiskaawed "greasy-bodied [fish]".[14]
Eskimo †
From Old Montagnais <aiachkimeou> (/aːjast͡ʃimeːw/) (modern ayassimēw), meaning "snowshoe-netter" (often incorrectly claimed to be from an Ojibwe word meaning "eaters of raw [meat]"), and originally used to refer to the Mikmaq.[15][16]
Hackmatack †
From an Algonquian language akemantak (c.f. Ojibwe aagimaandag), "snowshoe boughs".
Hickory †
From Powhatan <pocohiquara>, "milky drink made with hickory nuts".[17][18]
Hominy †
From Powhatan <uskatahomen>/<usketchaumun>, literally "that which is treated", in this case "that which is ground/beaten".[19]
Husky †
Ultimately from a variant form of the word "Eskimo" (see above).[20]
Kinkajou †
From an Algonquian word meaning "wolverine" (c.f. Algonquin kwingwaage, Ojibwe gwiingwa'aage),[2] through French quincajou.[21]
Kinnikinnick †
From Unami Delaware /kələkːəˈnikːan/, "mixture" (c.f. Ojibwe giniginige "to mix together something animate with something inanimate"),[2] from Proto-Algonquian *kereken-, "mix (it) with something different by hand".[22]
Mackinaw †
From michilmackinac, from Menomini mishilimaqkināhkw, "be large like a snapping turtle", or from Ojibwe mishi-makinaak, "large snapping turtle" with French -ile-, "island".
Moccasin †
From an Algonquian language, perhaps Powhatan <mockasin>,[23] reconstituted as */mahkesen/[24](c.f. Ojibwe makizin,[2] Míkmaq mɨkusun,[25] from Proto-Algonquian *maxkeseni).[26]
Moose †
From Eastern Abenaki moz, reinforced by cognates from other Algonquian languages[27][28] (e.g. Massachusett/Narragansett moos,[28] Ojibwe moo(n)z,[2] Lenape mus 'elk'[29]), from Proto-Algonquian *mo·swa.[28]
Mugwump †
From "mugquomp", a shortening of Massachusett <muggumquomp>, "war chief" (Proto-Algonquian *memekwa·pe·wa, from *memekw-, "swift" + *-a·pe·, "man").[30]
Muskellunge †
Ultimately from Ojibwe maashkinoozhe,[2] "ugly pike" (c.f. ginoozhe, "pike").
Muskeg †
From Cree maskēk, "swamp"[31] (Proto-Algonquian *maškye·kwi).[32]
Muskrat †
A folk-etymologized reshaping of earlier "musquash", from Massachusett (c.f. Western Abenaki mòskwas), apparently from Proto-Algonquian *mo·šk, "bob (at the surface of the water)" + *-exkwe·-, "head" + a derivational ending).[32]
Opossum †
From Powhatan <apasum>/<opussum>/<aposoum>, "white dog-like animal",[33] reconstituted as */aːpassem/[34] (c.f. Proto-Algonquian *waːp-aʔθemwa, "white dog").[35][36]
Papoose †
From Narragansett <papoòs>[37] or Massachusett <pappouse>, "baby".[38]
Pecan †
From Illinois pakani (c.f. Ojibwe bagaan),[2] "nut", from Proto-Algonquian *paka·ni.[39]
Pemmican †
From Cree pimihkān, from pimihkēw, "to make grease" (Proto-Algonquian *pemihke·wa, from *pemy-, "grease" + -ehke·, "to make").[40]
Persimmon †
From Powhatan <pessemins>/<pushemins>, reconstituted as */pessiːmin/.[41] While the final element reflects Proto-Algonquian *-min, "fruit, berry", the initial is unknown.[42]
Pipsissewa †
From Abenaki kpipskwáhsawe, "flower of the woods".[37][43]
Pokeweed †
Probably from "puccoon" (see below) + "weed".[37]
Pone †
From Powhatan <poan>/<appoans>, "something roasted" (reconstituted as */apoːn/)[44] (c.f. Ojibwe abwaan),[2] from Proto-Algonquian *apwa·n.[45]
Powwow †
From Narragansett powwaw, "shaman" (Proto-Algonquian *pawe·wa, "to dream, to have a vision").[46]
Puccoon †
From Powhatan <poughkone>,[37] reconstituted as */pakkan/[47] (c.f. Unami Delaware [peːkɔːn]).[48]
Pung
A low box-like sleigh designed for one horse. Shortened form of "tom-pung" (from the same etymon as "toboggan") from an Algonquian language of Southern New England.[49]
Punkie †
Via Dutch, from Munsee [ponkwəs] (Proto-Algonquian *penkwehsa, from *penkw-, "dust, ashes" + *-ehs, a diminutive suffix).[50]
Quahog †
From Narragansett <poquaûhock>.[51]
Quonset hut †
From an Algonquian language of southern New England, possibly meaning "small long place" (with <qunni->, "long" + <-s->, diminutive + <-et>, locative).[52]
Raccoon †
From Powhatan <arahkun>/<aroughcun>,[53] tentatively reconstituted as */aːreːhkan/.[54]
Sachem †
From an Algonquian language of southern New England,[55] c.f. Narragansett <sâchim> (Proto-Eastern Algonquian *sākimāw, "chief").[56]
Sagamore †
From Eastern Abenaki sakəma (c.f. Narragansett <sâchim>), "chief", from Proto-Eastern Algonquian *sākimāw.[56]
Shoepac †
From Unami Delaware [t͡ʃipahkɔ] "shoes" (singular [t͡ʃiːpːakw]), altered on analogy with English "shoe".[57]
Skunk †
From Massachusett <squnck> (Proto-Algonquian *šeka·kwa, from *šek-, "to urinate" + *-a·kw, "fox").[58]
Squash (fruit) †
From Narragansett <askútasquash>.[59]
Squaw †
From Massachusett <squa> (c.f. Cree iskwē, Ojibwe ikwe),[2] "woman", from Proto-Algonquian *eθkwe·wa.[59]
Succotash †
From Narragansett <msíckquatash>, "boiled whole kernels of corn" (Proto-Algonquian *mesi·nkwete·wari, singular *mesi·nkwete·, from *mes-, "whole" + *-i·nkw-, "eye [=kernel]" + -ete·, "to cook").[60]
Terrapin †
Originally "torope," from an Eastern Algonquian language, perhaps Powhatan (reconstituted as */toːrepeːw/)[61] (c.f. Munsee Delaware /toːlpeːw/),[62] from Proto-Eastern Algonquian *tōrəpēw.[63]
Toboggan †
From Míkmaq topaqan[64] or Maliseet-Passamaquoddy /tʰaˈpakən/[65] (Proto-Algonquian *weta·pye·kani, from *wet-, "to drag" + *-a·pye·-, "cordlike object" + *-kan, "instrument for").[64]
Tomahawk †
From Powhatan <tamahaac> (Proto-Algonquian *temaha·kani, from *temah-, "to cut" + *-a·kan, "instrument for").[66]
Totem †
From Ojibwe nindoodem, "my totem" or odoodeman, "his totem," referring to a kin group.[67]
Tuckahoe †
From Powhatan <tockawhoughe>/<tockwhough>/<taccaho>, "root used for bread", reconstituted as */takwahahk/[68] (perhaps from Proto-Algonquian *takwah-, "pound (it)/reduce (it) to flour").[69]
Tullibee †
From Old Ojibwe */otoːlipiː/[70] (modern odoonibii).[2]
Wampum †
Earlier "wampumpeag", from Massachusett, and meaning "white strings [of beads]" (c.f. Maliseet: wapapiyik,[71] Eastern Abenaki wápapəyak, Ojibwe waabaabiinyag),[2] from Proto-Algonquian *wa·p-, "white" + *-a·py-, "string-like object" + *-aki, plural.[72][73]
Wanigan †
from Ojibwa waanikaan, "storage pit"[74]
Wapiti (elk) †
From Shawnee waapiti, "white rump" (c.f. Ojibwe waabidiy),[2] from Proto-Algonquian *wa·petwiya, from *wa·p-, "white" + *-etwiy, "rump".[75]
Wickiup †
From Fox wiikiyaapi, from the same Proto-Algonquian etymon as "wigwam" (see below).[76]
Wigwam †
From Eastern Abenaki wìkəwam (c.f. Ojibwe wiigiwaam),[2] from Proto-Algonquian *wi·kiwa·Hmi.[77]
Woodchuck †
Reshaped on analogy with "wood" and "chuck", from an Algonquian language of southern New England (c.f. Narragansett <ockqutchaun>, "woodchuck").[78]

Words from Nahuatl

For a list of words relating to with Nahuatl language origins, see the Nahuatl derivations category of words in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Unless otherwise specified, Dictionnaire de la langue nahuatl classique is among the sources used for each etymology

Words of Nahuatl origin have entered many European languages. Mainly they have done so via Spanish. Most words of Nahuatl origin end in a form of the Nahuatl "absolutive suffix" (-tl, -tli, or -li, or the Spanish adaptation -te), which marked unpossessed nouns.

Achiote †
from achiotl
Atlatl †
from ahtlatl
Avocado †
from āhuacatl, "avocado" or "testicle"
Axolotl †
āxōlōtl, from ā-, "water" + xōlōtl, "male servant"[79]
Cacao † and cocoa †
from cacahuatl
Chayote †
from chayohtli
Chia †
from chiyan
Chicle †
from tzictli
Chili †
from chīlli
Chocolate †
Often said to be from Nahuatl xocolātl[37] or chocolātl,[80] which would be derived from xococ "bitter" and ātl "water" (with an irregular change of x > ch).[81] However, the form xocolātl is not directly attested, and chocolatl does not appear in Nahuatl until the mid-18th century. Some researchers have recently proposed that the chocol- element was originally chicol-, and referred to special wooden stick used to prepare chocolate.[82]
Copal †
from copalli[83]
Coyote †
from coyōtl
Epazote †
from epazōtl
Guacamole †
from āhuacamōlli, from āhuaca-, "avocado", and mōlli, "sauce"
Hoatzin †
from huāctzin[84]
Jicama †
from xicamatl
Mesquite †
from mizquitl
Mezcal †
from mexcalli
Mole †
from mōlli, "sauce"
Nopal †
from nohpalli, "prickly pear cactus"
Ocelot †
from ocēlōtl
Peyote †
from peyōtl. Nahuatl probably borrowed the root peyō- from another language, but the source is not known.[85]
Quetzal †
from quetzalli, "quetzal feather".[86]
Sapodilla †
from tzapocuahuitl
Sapota †
from tzapotl
Shack †
possibly from xacalli, "grass hut", by way of Mexican Spanish.[37][87]
Sotol †
from tzotolli[88]
Tamale †
from tamalli
Tule †
from tōllin, "reed, bulrush"
Tomato †
from tomatl

Words from Quechua

Unless otherwise specified, Words in English from Amerindian Languages is among the sources used for each etymology

A number of words from Quechua have entered English, mostly via Spanish

Ayahuasca †
from aya "soul" or "spirit" and huasca "vine" , via Spanish ayahuasca
Coca †
from kuka, via Spanish coca
Cocaine †
from kuka (see above), probably via French cocaïne
Condor †
from kuntur, via Spanish cóndor
Guanaco †
from wanaku
Guano †
from wanu/huanu via Spanish guano
Inca †
from Inka "lord, king"
Jerky †
from ch'arki, via Spanish charquí
Lagniappe †
from yapay, "add, addition", via Spanish la ñapa (with the definite article la).
Lima †
from rimay, "speak" (from the name of the city, named for the Rimaq river ("Speaking River"))
Llama †
from llama, via Spanish
Pampa †
from pampa, "flat", via Spanish
Pisco †
from pisqu, "little bird" (not from [1])
Puma †
from puma, via Spanish
Quinine †
from kinakina, via Spanish quina
Quinoa †
from kinwa
Soroche †
from suruqch'i, "mountain sickness"[89][90] (not from [2])
Vicuña †
from wik'uña, via Spanish vicuña

Words from Eskimo–Aleut languages

Anorak †
from Greenlandic Inuit annoraaq[91]
Chimo †
from Inuktitut, a word of greeting, farewell, and toast before drinking.[92] Used as a greeting and cheer by the Canadian Military Engineers, and more widely in some parts of Southern Ontario and Western Canada, particularly in Saskatoon, Saskatchewan
Igloo †
from Inuktitut iglu ([iɣlu])[93]
Ilanaaq †
Inuktitut ilanaaq, "friend". Name of the logo for the 2010 Winter Olympics
Inuksuk †
from Inuktitut inuksuk[93]
Kayak †
from Inuktitut qajaq[93]
Malamute †
from Inupiaq Malimiut, the name of an Inupiaq subgroup[94]
Mukluk †
from Yupik maklak ([makɬak]), "Bearded Seal"[93]
Nanook †
from Inuktitut Nanuq,[95] "polar bear", made famous in English due to a 1922 documentary Nanook of the North, featuring a man with this name.
Nunatak †
from Greenlandic Inuit nunataq[96]
Umiaq †

Words from Arawakan languages

Anole †
from an Arawakan language, or possibly Cariban, by way of French anolis.[97][98][99]
Barbecue †
from an Arawakan language of Haiti barbakoa, "framework of sticks",[100] via Spanish barbacoa.[101]
Cacique or cassique †
from Taino cacike or Arawak kassequa "chieftain" [102]
Caiman †
from a Ta-Maipurean language, "water spirit" (c.f. Garifuna [aɡaiumã]),[103][104] though possibly ultimately of African origin.[105]
Canoe †
from Taino via Spanish canoa.[106]
Cassava †
from Taino caçabi, "manioc meal", via Spanish or Portuguese.[107]
Cay †
from Taino, by way of Spanish cayo.[108]
Guava †
from an Arawakan language, by way of Spanish guayaba.[109]
Hammock †
from Taino, via Spanish hamaca.[110]
Hurricane †
from Taino hurakán, via Spanish.[111]
Iguana †
from an Arawakan language iwana.[112][113]
Maize †
from Taino mahís, by way of Spanish.[114][115]
Mangrove †
from Taino, via Spanish mangle or Portuguese mangue.[116]
Papaya †
from Taino.[117]
Potato †
from the Taino word for "sweet potato", via Spanish batata.[118]
Savanna †
from Taino zabana, via Spanish.[119]
Tobacco †
probably from an Arawakan language, via Spanish: tabaco.[64]
Yuca †
from Taino, via Spanish.[120]

Words from Tupi–Guaraní languages

Agouti †
from Tupi–Guaraní akutí, via French and Spanish.[121][122][123]
Cashew †
from Tupí acaîu, via Portuguese caju.[124]
Capybara †
from Guaraní kapibári.
Cayenne †
from Tupí kyinha.[125]
Cougar †
ultimately corrupted from Guaraní guaçu ara.[126]
Jaguar †
from Tupinambá /jaˈwar-/,[127] via Portuguese.[128]
Jaguarundi †
from Guaraní.
Maraca †
from Tupí maraka
Macaw †
via Portuguese Macau from Tupi macavuana, which may be the name of a type of palm tree the fruit of which the birds eat.[129]
Manioc †
from Tupinambá /maniˈʔok-/.[127]
Petunia †
from Tupí petun 'smoke'
Piranha †
from Tupí.[130]
Tapioca †
from Tupinambá /tɨpɨˈʔok-a/,[127] "juice squeezed out".[131]
Tapir †
from Tupinambá /tapiˈʔir-/.[127]
Toucan †
from Tupinambá /tuˈkan-/,[127] via Portuguese and French.[132]

Words from other indigenous languages of the Americas

Abalone †
from Rumsen awlun and Ohlone aluan, via Spanish abulón.[133]
Alpaca †
from Aymara allpaka, via Spanish.[134]
Appaloosa †
Either named for the Palouse River, whose name comes from Sahaptin palú:s, "what is standing up in the water"; or for Opelousas, Louisiana, which may come from Choctaw api losa, "black body".[135]
Bayou †
from early Choctaw bayuk, "creek, river", via French.[136]
Camas †
from Nez Perce qémʼes.[137]
Cannibal †
via Spanish Caníbalis, from a Cariban language, meaning "person, Indian",[138] (Proto-Cariban *karípona),[139] based on the Spaniards' belief that the Caribs ate human flesh.[140]
Catalpa †
from Creek katałpa "head-wing", with (i)ká, "head" + (i)táłpa, "wing".[141]
Cenote †
from Yucatec Maya dzonot or ts'onot[142] meaning "well"[143]
Cheechako †
from Chinook Jargon chee + chako, "new come". Chee comes from Lower Chinook čxi, "straightaway", and for chako c.f. Nuuchahnulth čokwaa, "come!"[144]
Chicha
via Spanish from Kuna chichab, "maize" or from Nahuatl chichiatl, "fermented water."
Chinook †
from Lower Chehalis tsʼinúk, the name of a village,[145][146] via Chinook Trade Jargon.
Chuckwalla †
from Cahuilla čáxwal.[147]
Coho †
from Halkomelem k̉ʷə́xʷəθ ([kʷʼəxʷəθ]).[37][148][149]
Coontie †
from Creek conti hetaka.
Coypu †
from Mapudungun kóypu.
Divi-divi †
from Cumanagoto.
Dory †
from Miskito dóri, dúri.
Eulachon †
from a Cree adaptation of Chinook Trade Jargon ulâkân,[150] itself a borrowing of Clatsap u-tlalxwə(n), "brook trout".[151]
Geoduck †
from Lushootseed (Nisqually) gʷídəq.[152][153]
Guan †
from Kuna.
High muckamuck †
from Chinook Jargon [ˈmʌkəmʌk], "eat, food, drink", of unknown origin.[154]
Hogan †
from Navajo hooghan.[155]
Hooch †
a shortening of "Hoochinoo", the name of a Tlingit village, from Tlingit xutsnuuwú, "brown bear fort".[156][157]
Kachina †
from Hopi katsína, "spirit being".[158]
Kiva †
from Hopi kíva (containing ki-, "house").[159]
Kokanee †
perhaps from Twana kəknǽxw.[160]
Manatee †
via Spanish manatí, from a word in a Cariban language meaning "(woman's) breast".[161][162][163]
Ohunka
from Lakota "false", "untrue".[164]
Piki †
from Hopi.
Pogonip †
from Shoshone /pakɨnappɨ/ ([paˈɣɨnappɨ̥]), "fog".[165]
Poncho †
via Spanish from Mapudungun pontho,[166] "woolen fabric".[167]
Potato
via Spanish patata from Haitian Carib batata="sweet potato"[168]
Potlatch †
from Nuuchahnulth (Nootka) p̉aƛp̉ač ([pʼatɬpʼat͡ʃ], reduplication of p̉a, "to make ceremonial gifts in potlatch", with the iterative suffix -č) via Chinook Jargon.[169]
Salal †
from Chinook Trade Jargon [səˈlæl], from Lower Chinook salál.[170]
Saguaro †
via Spanish, from some indigenous language, possibly Opata.[171]
Sasquatch †
From Halkomelem [ˈsæsqʼəts].[172]
Sego †
from Ute-Southern Paiute /siˈkuʔa/ ([siˈɣuʔa]).[173]
sequoia †
from a Cherokee personal name, <Sikwayi>, with no further known etymology.[174]
Sockeye †
from Halkomelem /ˈsθəqəʔj/.[175]
Skookum †
from Chinook Jargon [ˈskukəm], "powerful, supernaturally dangerous", from Lower Chehalis skʷəkʷə́m, "devil, anything evil, spirit monster".[176][177]
Tamarin †
from a Cariban language, via French.[178]
Tipi †
from Lakota thípi, "house".[62]
Tupelo †
Perhaps from Creek ’topilwa, "swamp-tree", from íto, "tree" + opílwa, "swamp".[179]
Wapatoo †
from Chinook Jargon [ˈwapato], "arrowroot, wild potato", from Upper Chinook [wa]-, a noun prefix + [pato], which comes from Kalapuyan [pdóʔ], "wild potato".[180]
Yaupon †
from Catawba yąpą, from yą, "wood/tree" + pą, "leaf".[181]

See also

References

  1. ^ Klak, Thomas. "Historical Landscapes of the Miami". Myaamia Project. Archived from the original on 2007-09-28. http://web.archive.org/web/20070928031958/http://www.myaamiaproject.org/project/map.php. Retrieved 2007-03-29. 
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Nichols, John, and Earl Nyholm. 1995. A Concise Dictionary of Minnesota Ojibwe. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press
  3. ^ Some Illinois Words: Places
  4. ^ a b Campbell (1997:399)
  5. ^ Campbell (1997:395)
  6. ^ Chamberlain, Alexander F. (1902). "Algonkian Words in American English: A Study in the Contact of the White Man and the Indian". The Journal of American Folklore (The Journal of American Folklore, Vol. 15, No. 59) 15 (59): 240–267. doi:10.2307/533199. JSTOR 533199. 
  7. ^ RHD (1987:129)
  8. ^ "Atamasco lily". American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. Archived from the original on 2007-09-27. http://web.archive.org/web/20070927013401/http://www.yourdictionary.com/ahd/a/a0492200.html. Retrieved 2007-03-30. 
  9. ^ "Babiche". Dictionary.com. http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=babiche. Retrieved 2008-07-07. 
  10. ^ RHD (1987:315-16)
  11. ^ RHD (1987:361)
  12. ^ Siebert (1975:323)
  13. ^ Rhodes, Richard A. 1985. Eastern Ojibwa–Chippewa–Ottawa Dictionary. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter
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  15. ^ Campbell (1997:394)
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  44. ^ Siebert (1975:320)
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  74. ^ Wanigan American Heritage Dictionary of English Language, Fourth Edition, 2000
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  83. ^ Merriam-Webster Dictionary online
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  86. ^ RHD (1987:1585)
  87. ^ shack
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  96. ^ Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary
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  98. ^ Campbell (1997:11)
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  129. ^ http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=macaw
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  141. ^ Bright (2004:83)
  142. ^ or tz'onot in some secondary sources, such as Sharer & Traxler 2006: 52.
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  164. ^ "Lakota Words Index". Lakota Writings. http://www.lakotawritings.com/lakota_words_Index.htm. Retrieved 2010-01-13. 
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  167. ^ "Poncho". Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/poncho. Retrieved 2008-07-07. 
  168. ^ http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=potato
  169. ^ Oxford English Dictionary: Potlatch
  170. ^ Bright (2004:416)
  171. ^ RHD (1987:1691)
  172. ^ Bright (2004:422)
  173. ^ Bright (2004:429)
  174. ^ Bright (2004:432)
  175. ^ Bright (2004:455)
  176. ^ Bright (2004:452)
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  178. ^ RHD (1987:1939)
  179. ^ RHD (1987:2036)
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  181. ^ RHD (1987:2200)

Bibliography

External links